atrocious monsters of the revolution, was sent to Nantes, where he spared neither age nor sex, but put to death the aged, the infirm, and even infants. The atrocities committed by the satellites of the convention in the city of Lyons, exceeded all that can be conceived; at the end of five months, nearly 6,000 persons had perished.

In Paris the executions were now multiplied to such a degree that eighty persons were frequently conveyed in the same vehicle to the place where they suffered. To cite the names of all the illustrious victims who fell, would far exceed our limits, and, at the same time, present too horrid a picture of human depravity. At length Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just, the leaders in these murders, were themselves brought to condign punishment.

A form of government was afterwards settled by the convention; and a council of ancients, a council of five hundred, and five rulers, called a directory, were appointed; but the other powers of Europe being still in league against France, and the new government being unfortunate in the field, the executive power was, in 1799, vested in three consuls, of whom the first was the victorious Napoleon Buonaparte.

It is not necessary to trace the history of this remarkable individual. It is sufficient to say that he soon overturned the government that had risen upon the wreck of the monarchy, and established a military despotism, of which he became the head. He was crowned emperor in 1808, and, from this period, devoted himself with amazing energy to the formation of a system of laws, the improvement of roads, and other internal improve

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ments; the extension of commerce and manufactures, and to foreign conquest. In all these he was generally successful, till, having been defeated in an invasion of Russia, he was driven back to France, and after various events was finally defeated at Waterloo, in 1815.

Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., was restored to the throne of his family; but in 1825 he died, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles X. The misfortunes of the Bourbons had not taught them wisdom; and Charles, fancying that he could exercise tyranny as his father had done, caused an edict to be issued restraining the liberty of the press.

An insurrection immediately broke out, and in three glorious days a revolution was achieved. Charles fled to England, and Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, was chosen king. A charter, or constitution, was formed, and is now the basis of the government. The crown is hereditary, but its power is limited by a parliament consisting of a house of commons, chosen by the people, and a house of lords, consisting of peers, whose titles continue only during their lives.

This recent history of France is full of instruction. It shows that tyranny, carried to a certain point, is sure to bring those who exercise it to destruction, while it involves whole nations in unutterable miseries.

The French revolution was the necessary result of the accumulated wrongs which the nation had suffered for ages from their rulers. The people by one act hurled the monarchy to the earth; but, unaccustomed to self-government, themselves vicious and corrupt, they became the dupes of other despots, even more monstrous than those whe claimed to rule by divine right.

His

In the midst of anarchy and confusion, one mighty hand seizes upon the reins of government, and calling to his aid the force of the bayonet, subjects the whole country to his sway. grasping ambition arouses the nations, and he, too, is prostrated, like a pyramid hurled into atoms, and levelled with the dust.

The ancient monarchy is now restored. Again the king resorts to an act of tyranny, and again the tempest of revolution bursts upon the people. But, amid all this confusion, something has been learned. Some progress has been made in the education of the people in the art of self-government, and now they are able to secure the advantages of their triumph over a despotic ruler. The result of this second revolution in France, was the securing of a charter, or a constitution, which is a barrier to the power of the crown, and a protection to the liberties of the people. Thus the government of France has become a limited, or constitutional, monarchy, instead of a despotic one, as it was, in effect, down to the time of Louis XVI.

The lower house, in the legislative branch, is called the Chamber of Deputies; the upper house, the Chamber of Peers. The peers are nominated by the king. The whole number of persons who vote for deputies, is but about 130,000. The forms and modes of proceeding in the French parliament, are similar to those in the British parliament

CHAPTER XXXIX.

Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

THE political history of Great Britain is worthy of the most attentive perusal; for here we shall see the best delineations of the struggles of mankind for liberty, to be found in the records of the human family. Here we shall also find the germs of our own political institutions; and seeing how mighty has been the cost at which freedom has been discovered and vindicated, we shall learn to appreciate the blessings we enjoy.

The first knowledge of Britain appears to have been acquired in the time of Cæsar, who partially conquered the country about fifty years before Christ. ucceeding generals completed this conquest, and it became a Roman province.

Rome held possession of the country till about A. D. 450, when she was herself prostrated by the Goths and Vandals. During this period she had partially civilized the Britons, who, like the Gauls, were Celts, living in a nearly savage state. No longer protected by the Romans, Britain fell a prey to the Danes, and afterwards to the Saxons, who established their dominion in the country.

During these events, the population of England became a mixture of the original Britons, Romans, Danes and Saxons, though the last constitute by far the largest ingredient. Alfred the great, of the Saxon line, may be regarded as the founder of the English monarchy, and as the author of many. of its best institutions.

He was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the west Saxons, and was born at Wantage, in Berkshire. He went to Rome at the age of five years, and was anointed by the pope, although he then had an elder brother. However, in 872 he ascended the throne.

This was an unpropitious time, for the power of the Danes was then great and employed in harassing the Saxons, whose country they ravaged in various directions. Alfred concluded some treaties with them, but they were not kept; and, unable to make head against the invaders, he was compelled to fly, and in concealment to await a moment when his re-appearance would be advantageous for his country.

In the disguise of a harper he penetrated the Danish camp, to gain information of the strength of his foes, and, having satisfied himself, directed his nobles and their vassals to assemble at Selwood. Here he headed the troops, and attacking